Page from critical edition of the Greek New Testament

The Bible was traditionally regarded as an expression of timeless truth. Beginning in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with the rise of modern science, scholars emphasized that the Bible--like other books--was conditioned by the historical context in which it was written. Several lines of critical inquiry developed: (1) Text. Writings in the Bible were passed down in various forms, in part because the scribes who copied them made errors or introduced changes into the manuscripts. Therefore, efforts were made to determine the earliest forms of the biblical writings. (2) Sources and Editors. Scholars concluded that many biblical books were based on sources that were revised by later editors. For example, the gospels were no longer regarded as simple eyewitness accounts of Jesus' ministry, but as the products of oral and written sources that were compiled, revised, and edited over a period of time. (3) Reconstructing History. Biblical narratives were often written years after the events that they report, and their authors reflect distinctive points of view. For example, the four gospels present portraits of Jesus that differ in many respects. Some scholars have tried to reconstruct an account of Jesus' life by selecting the elements in the gospels that they deem most authentic. (4) Text and Context. Biblical writings often address specific contexts. For example, the prophets spoke of injustice in Jerusalem and other places, while Paul's letters address specific congregations like Corinth and Philippi. Analysis of the social contexts in which the biblical authors wrote helps to show the significance of their messages. Sociology, archaeology, and other disciplines are used to clarify these contexts. (5) Literary analysis. The Bible includes various kinds of literature such as stories, letters, and poems. Using perspectives from literary criticism, scholars analyze features of the Bible such as plot, character development, and metaphorical language. By the end of the twentieth century, postmodern scholars challenged the idea that any definitive understanding of the Bible could be attained.